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A Historical Analysis on Maritime Safety

By Hans Propsma

15 minutes

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“If a boat-builder has caulked a boat for a man but has not done it properly and in the same year the boat begins to leak and shows a defect, the boat-builder shall repair that boat and reinforce it at his own expense, and give the reinforced boat to the owner of the boat.” (Dedović, 2023).

This law is one of the oldest forms of maritime safety legislation that can be found in human history. Law 235 of the Code refers to the safe construction of maritime vessels, with the primary goal being liability in case of ship defects. The main driver of maritime safety regulation for many years after the code of Hammurabi was not benevolence, but financial incentives as can be seen in the aforementioned code. 

This is a trend that can be seen across antiquity and all the way up to modern times. Another example of safety laws being more about finances can be found in ancient Greece with Rhodian Sea Law (end of the 3^rd century BC). One of the laws created was the “lex Rhodia de iactu”, which (approximately) translates to “the Rhodian law on the throwing overboard of goods”. Once again, this law deals with liability for assets and who compensates whom (and to what extent) in the case of goods being thrown overboard (Nawrot, 2019). Now, the safety aspect of this law may not be apparent at first glance, but this law is about safety. In ancient times (and all the way up to modern times) ships were often overloaded to make as much profit as possible, and when facing bad weather crews of these ships would often throw overboard cargo to decrease the total weight of the ship, thus increasing their chances for survival. With the establishment of a law to deal with these situations, boatsmen could legally throw overboard cargo they were carrying, and not have to be worried of any repercussions they might face when they arrived at the port. When the Romans conquered the Greeks they gained access to these laws and chose to implement them all throughout the Roman empire, forming the basis of maritime law throughout the Mediterranean for many years to come (Huissen, n.d.). 

Another form of maritime safety from the ancient period worth mentioning is the Bible, specifically Genesis 6:13-20. This is the part in the Bible where God tells Noa to build the Ark which also includes God explaining to Noa how to build said Ark. Modern research conducted in the 1990s proves that the Ark built by Noa would be a seaworthy ship and falls in line with modern standards for the construction of large cargo ships (Hong, et al, 1994).

Maritime Safety in the Middle Ages

In the middle ages (~400 A.D. – ~1500 A.D.) or the ‘dark ages’, there were no major advancements in the field of maritime safety due to the people’s shift in priority to survival on land, rather than on the waters. Over the 1000 year period there were some advancements in maritime technology, during the high middle ages  (~13^th century) the compass made its way from Eastern Asia to Europe. The “invention” of the compass has been considered one of the most important advancements in maritime safety during the entire period of the middle ages, as the device allowed for an improved way of navigating the seas and thus, increased the chance of a ship reaching its intended harbour. Besides the compass, other technological advancements increased the safety of travelling the seas. For example, maps became more prevalent and improvements were made in shipbuilding (Sorrell, 2023).

Legal Advancements

Besides technological advancements that contributed to improved maritime safety, there were also legal advancements made. One of the first versions of maritime law created during the high middle ages were the Amalfi Tables. The Amalfi Tables were created in the maritime republic of Amalfi (located near current day Naples, Italy). The Tables were a mixture of the previously mentioned Rhodian codes and the later Justinian codes. Once again, these codes were not primarily focused on maritime safety but there were similar rules to the Rhodian codes regarding the act of throwing overboard goods. These Tables were used all throughout the Mediterranean by not only Italian traders, but also Arab traders (Migunova et al., 2022). 

One of the first real safety regulations was also created during this time, namely a line on the side of a ship that would indicate if a ship was overloaded. The Venetian and Genoese republics, and also the Hanseatic League, attempted to stop the overloading of ships with a line on the side. The line was often disregarded and this attempt at maritime safety ultimately failed (U.S. Naval Institute, 2025).

Following the Amalfi tables there were more laws created to address maritime trade such as, the Oleron Scrolls (named after the Isle of Oleron in the Bay of Biscay located on the French coast near current-day Bordeaux), Catalan maritime law and Visby law (created on Isle of Gotland in the Baltic). These laws mostly focused on resolving maritime commerce disputes, but also included passages regarding the throwing overboard of goods. These laws eventually formed the basis of Admiralty law, created by the Anglo-Saxons, and was one of the first codes to include passages specifically regarding the wellbeing of the ship crews. Admiralty law established several rules on the living conditions onboard ships, but also legally required crews to take care of their sick (Migunova et al., 2022). 

Physical and Scientific Advancements

During the 18^th century the construction methods for ships gradually improved, an example of this is the adoption of copper sheathing. This technique lined the outer hull of a ship with copper stopping woodworms from eating the ship, thus decreasing the chance of the ship sinking but also prolonging the lifespan of ships and decreasing the maintenance. A second improvement was the use of iron to reinforce ships, first starting with wrought iron joints and later iron bracing. Before the use of iron in shipbuilding, the decks were fastened with wooden brackets that were called ‘knees’. If a ship using this method of construction encountered rough seas the ship would flex and bend, causing leaks and, in particularly bad weather, even snap the masts of the ships. Iron reinforcements decreased this ‘flexing’ aboard ships. Flush decks also increased the survivability of ships as they allowed for a watertight seal on the top deck that stopped the ship from filling up with water. The adoption of partitioned hulls also contributed to a safer form of sea travel, as it would stop ballast from shifting around the ship. This decreased the chance of a ship capsizing and added on to a more survivable ship.

Besides the improvements made in shipbuilding, scientific advancements also increased safety. Astronomy contributed significantly to better navigation, since ship captains would be able to better understand where their ship was. New technologies like chronometers would assist in the navigation of the seas. Maps and compasses also became more advanced during this period allowing for better and safer navigation.

Another improvement made was the rising prevalence of lighthouses during the late 18^th century. The number of lighthouses on the east coast of the United States in 1750 was only three, but by 1800 there were 24 and 85 by 1830. The growth was similar to that of the United Kingdom, there were 15 lighthouses in the whole of the UK during the middle of the 18^th century and that number grew to 57 in 1800 resulting in 264 lighthouses as of 1844. This development decreased the chance of a ship running aground and improved navigation (Kelly et al., 2021).

Plimsoll’s Efforts

During the 19^th century there were two problems with shipping, firstly, the problem of overloading and secondly the ‘coffin ships’. The field of maritime insurance (specifically Lloyd’s Register companies) tried to fix the first of those two problems by requiring ships to have a minimum of 3 inches of freeboard for every foot of hold depth; this once again failed as the rule was often disregarded. To refer back to the second issue, it was the field of maritime insurance that caused the problem of coffin ships, since some ships were worth more when sunk than when they were in operation causing unscrupulous individuals to extend the service life of ships far beyond what was safe.

Seeing all of these problems Samuel Plimsoll, a ‘true pioneer’ of maritime safety, decided to change the rules for ships. Plimsoll was a business man who moved to London to work as a coal merchant, a career path which ultimately failed. Since he was out of a job, he spent several years living in the lodging houses of the docks among the impoverished sailors. It was through that experience that he first learned of the horrible conditions sailors faced aboard ships.

When Plimsoll was elected to parliament in 1867, he campaigned for sailors rights, and wrote a book about the dangers sailors faced on a daily basis which shocked the British public. In 1875, as a result of Plimsoll’s efforts, the government introduced legislation to protect sailors from overloading and coffin ships. To the great frustration of Plimsoll, however, this new legislation did little for the sailors and only aided the shipowners. He kept on campaigning, his tireless resolve and changes in public perception eventually forced the government’s hand. In 1876, new legislation was passed which banned coffin ships and required a line on the sides of all British ships to show the maximum loading weight for ships. 

Several changes were made in the following years to the line that addressed different types of waters; for example, an F next to the line would mean that that ship could be loaded to the line and sail in fresh water. WNA would represent Winter North Atlantic, T would be Tropical, and so on for different types of waters around the world. These rules that Plimsoll had fought for were subsequently adopted across the world; this line is still in use today and is fittingly called the Plimsoll Line (U.S. Naval Institute, 2025).

The Impact of the Titanic on Maritime Safety

Up to the start of the 20^th century there was no international maritime safety treaty, this changed following one of the most infamous maritime disasters of all time, the sinking of the RMS Titanic in 1912. The sinking of the RMS Titanic occurred as the ocean liner collided with an iceberg at high speed. This was worsened by the lack of lifeboats, only having room for about half of the passengers (Pruitt, 2025). 

Following the sinking of the RMS Titanic, the representatives of 13 different nations (and their respective colonies) gathered in London between the 23^rd of November 1913 and the 20^th of January 1914 to establish international standards for shipping safety. The result was the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Convention of 1914, that established international ice patrols and regulations such as:

• Mandatory regular safety inspections during and after construction to confirm compliance with safety rules.
• Life jackets for every person aboard the ship.
• Sufficient life rafts for each passenger, that could be easily launched in case of an emergency.
• Each crew member would have specific duties in case of emergencies.
• Every ship was to be equipped with a radiotelegraph.
• Formalization of international distress calls.

Only five of the countries which participated in the convention ratified it (Great Britain, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain, and Sweden), as the First World War started only months after the convention had been drafted and maritime safety took a back seat to the war effort (The National Archives, n.d.).

Following the end of the ‘Great War’ (1914-1918) an international dialogue was resumed, a new SOLAS convention was created in 1929 following a conference held, once again, in London. It kept most of the framework created within the 1914 convention but expanded and tightened regulations. The 1929 convention also revised the regulations for the prevention of collisions at sea (International Maritime Organization, 1998, pp. 1-2). 

Post-WWII Developments

The next development of maritime safety occurred in the year 1948, with a third conference also held in London. The 1948 SOLAS convention expanded on the previous conventions and introduced new regulations. In 1948 the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) was founded, following a convention of the nascent United Nations in Geneva. The IMCO would be the primary inter-governmental organization dealing with any matters relating to Maritime safety (International Maritime Organization, 1998, pp. 2). 

Only 12 years after the 1948 SOLAS convention there would be yet another SOLAS convention which resulted, once again in a conference held in London. The reason for a new SOLAS convention was the rapid development of maritime technology and the need for regulation. The 1960 SOLAS convention would be adopted in 1966 with amendments to the convention happening regularly in the following years. Many amendments were needed to keep the convention up to date. Around this time there were also many new countries joining the UN, resulting in the two thirds majority needed to pass the amendments significantly harder to achieve. Thus, it was decided to create a new SOLAS convention (International Maritime Organization, 1998, pp. 2-3).

Following this decision, a new conference was organized in London, which lasted from the 21^st of October until the 1^st of November 1974 and established the fifth SOLAS convention which is still in use today. The SOLAS convention of 1974 introduced new regulations, revised old regulations, but also created a new system for introducing amendments which only required tacit acceptance instead of the two thirds majority required by the 1960 SOLAS convention. Since the adoption of the SOLAS Convention of 1974, there have been numerous amendments made to the convention on a regular basis, and it is unlikely that there will be a need for a new SOLAS Convention in the future (International Maritime Organization, 1998, pp. 3-4).

Conclusion

As the title of this article stated, a brief overview of those almost 4000 years of history surrounding maritime safety were addressed and analysed. From the very first mentions of maritime safety in the Code of Hammurabi, to the five SOLAS conventions drafted in modern day London. Humanity has come a long way in the field of maritime safety, and will certainly strive to keep improving the safety and wellbeing of those who travel the seas.

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Reference List:

Dedović, B. (2023, November 6). § 235 – eHammurabi. OMNIKA Foundation. https://ehlaw.org/law/235

Hong, S.W. [et al.] (1994), Safety Investigation of Noah’s Ark in a Seaway, Creation ex nihi-lo, Technical Journal 8.1, pp. 26–35.

Huissen, G. (n.d.). Roman maritime trade law | Roman ports. https://www.romanports.org/en/articles/human-interest/872-roman-maritime-trade-law.html

International Maritime Organization. (1998). SOLAS: The International Convention for the Safety of Life At Sea, 1974. https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/OurWork/Safety/Documents/SOLAS98final.pdf

Kelly, M., Gráda, C. Ó., & Solar, P. M. (2021). Safety at Sea during the Industrial Revolution. The Journal Of Economic History, 81(1), 239–275. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022050720000595

Migunova, T., Mineeva, T., & Bakulina, E. (2022). The Maritime Law in the Middle Ages. In Lecture notes in networks and systems (pp. 939–947). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96383-5_104

Nawrot, J. (2019). Maritime Safety Model According to Regulations in Ancient Law. Gdańskie Studia Prawnicze. https://doi.org/10.26881/GSP.2019.3.12

Pruitt, S. (2025, June 26). Why did the Titanic sink? HISTORY. https://www.history.com/articles/why-did-the-titanic-sink

Sorrell, S. (2023). Medieval naval warfare | Research Starters | EBSCO Research. EBSCO. https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/arts-and-entertainment/medieval-naval-warfare

The National Archives. (n.d.). The Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS). https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/explore-the-collection/stories/the-convention-for-the-safety-of-life-at-sea/

U.S. Naval Institute. (2025). Plimsoll Lines: The Measure of a Ship. https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history/2025/august/plimsoll-lines-measure-ship

Van der Heide, G. (1974). Scheepsarcheologie. Amsterdam: Strengholt, p. 106-111.